RAZIA SULTANA, short biography

RAZIA SULTANA

    Razia al-Din (1205-1240), throne name Jalâlat ud-Dîn Raziyâ, usually referred to in history as Razia Sultan or Razia Sultana, was the Sultana of Delhi in India from 1236 to 1240. She was of Turkish Seljuks ancestry and like some other Muslim princesses of the time, she was trained to lead armies and administer kingdoms if necessary.Razia Sultana, the fifth Mamluk Sultan, was the very first woman ruler in the Muslim and Turkish history
    Razia succeeded her father Shams-ud-din Iltutmish to the Sultanate of Delhi in 1236. Iltutmish became the first sultan to appoint a woman as his successor when he designated his daughter Razia as his heir apparent. (According to one source, Iltumish's eldest son had initially been groomed as his successor, but had died prematurely.) But the Muslim nobility had no intention of acceding to Iltutmish's appointment of a woman as heir, and after the sultan died on April 29, 1236, Razia's brother, Ruknuddin Feroze Shah, was elevated to the throne instead.
    Ruknuddin's reign was short. With Iltutmish's widow Shah Turkaan for all practical purposes running the government, Ruknuddin abandoned himself to the pursuit of personal pleasure and debauchery, to the considerable outrage of the citizenry. On November 9, 1236, both Ruknuddin and his mother Shah Turkaan were assassinated after only six months in power.
    With reluctance, the nobility agreed to allow Razia to reign as Sultan of Delhi. As a child and adolescent, Razia had had little contact with the women of the harem, so she had not learnt the customary behavior of women in the Muslim society that she was born into. Even before she became Sultan, she was reportedly preoccupied with the affairs of state during her father's reign. As Sultan, Razia preferred a man's tunic and headdress; and contrary to custom, she would later show her face when she rode an elephant into battle at the head of her army.
    A shrewd politician, Razia managed to keep the nobles in check, while enlisting the support of the army and the populace. Her greatest accomplishment on the political front was to manipulate rebel factions into opposing each other. At that point, Razia seemed destined to become one of the most powerful rulers of the Delhi Sultanate.
    But Razia miscounted the consequences that a relationship with one of her advisers, Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, an Abyssinian Siddi (Habshi) slave, would have for her reign. According to some accounts, Razia and Yaqut were lovers; other sources simply identify them as close confidants. In any case, before long she had aroused the jealousy of the Turkish nobility by the favoritism she displayed toward Yaqut, who was not a Turk, when she appointed him to be Superintendent of the Stables. Eventually, a childhood friend named Malik Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, joined a rebellion by other provincial governors who refused to accept Razia's authority.
    A battle between Razia and Altunia ensued, with the result that Yaqut was killed and Razia taken prisoner. To escape death, Razia agreed to marry Altunia. Meanwhile, Razia's brother, Muizuddin Bahram Shah, had usurped the throne. After Altunia and Razia undertook to take back the sultanate from Bahram through battle, both Razia and her husband were killed on October 14, 1240 (some sources say October 13). Bahram, for his part, would later be dethroned for incompetence.
    As sultan, Razia reportedly sought to abolish the tax on non-Muslims but met opposition from the nobility. By way of response, Razia is said to have pointed out that the spirit of religion was more important than its parts, and that even the Islamic prophet Muhammad spoke against overburdening the non-Muslims. On another occasion, Razia reportedly tried to appoint an Indian Muslim convert from Hinduism to an official position but again ran into opposition from the nobles.
    Razia was reportedly devoted to the cause of her empire and to her subjects. There is no record that she made any attempt to remain aloof from her subjects, rather it appears she preferred to mingle among them. Her tolerance of Hinduism would later bring her criticism from Muslim historians.
    Razia established schools, academies, centers for research, and public libraries that included the works of ancient philosophers along with the Qur'an and the traditions of Muhammad. Hindu works in the sciences, philosophy, astronomy, and literature were reportedly studied in schools and colleges.
    Razia refused to be addressed as Sultana because it meant "wife or mistress of a sultan". She would answer only to the title "Sultan".

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PROSE LITERATURE UNDER SALJUQUES

PROSE LITERATURE UNDER SALJUQUES:

    During the great Saljuque dynasty (1037 A.D -1157A.D) the Persian Prose flourished into a fruitful branch of literature. The period is remarkable fro a significant development in the writing of Persian-prose in Iran.  A host of writers produced their scholarly books on various branches of sciences. Most of the books were written due to the patronage of saljuque princes and ministers. The prose work of this period is usually in simple language and fluent style and free from rhetorical and literary pedanticity which made their way into Persian of the later Mongol period. And account of the celebrated works of the period of given below:-
    WORKS ON MYSTICISM:
Kashful Mahjub:  It was written by Abul Hasan Osman Ghaznavi well known as Hajari about the year 465/1072 A.D. It deals with the lives, doctrine and sayings of the Sufi saints. The book is considred to be the oldest original work on mysticism in Persian language.
Israrut-Tauheed: It was written in the later part of the 6th century A.H. by Md Bin Al Munawar. It is one of the most important and oldest mystical works on Sufi saints written in most elegant Persian. It mostly contains the biography, miracles and the sayings of Abu Sayeed Abil Khair and is full of anecdotes and mystical verses.
Tazkiratul Aulia: It was written in the early part of the 7th/13th century by the great Sufi poet and thinker Fariduddin Attar. It gives a vivid description of the biographies of 97 ancient mystics, their sayings, prayers and characters. The book is full interesting anecdots, traditions and moral teachings.
    WORKS ON HISTORY
Zainul Akhbar:  It is one of the oldest books on history Persian, written by Abu Sayeed Abdul Hayee of Gardiz, about 443-444 A.H. (1051-53A.D.) It is a brief history of Iran from the beginning of Islam to author's time.
Rahatus Sodur: It was written by Abu Bakr Muhammad Rawandi during the reign of Tughral bin Arsalan, the last Saljuqe ruler. It is the most significant and detailed history of the Saljuques from the beginning to its end. It is also important because it contains the names of a large number of poets and scholars of the period.
Tarikh-e-Baihqi:  It is another important historical work produced during the Saljuque period. The book written by Khawaja Abul Fazl Baihqi (d. 470/1077-78) is the most authentic work on the history. It originally consisted of 30 volumes but at present except a few incomplete volumes, all have been lost. It is also called Tarikh-e-Masudi. Infact the book is the best example of Persian prose of the period.
    ETHICAL WORKS:
Qaboos Nama: It is a book of moral percepts and rules of conduct. The book was written by Amir Ali Kaus bin Askandar bin Qabus Washmgir in 475/1082-83 A.D. for giving moral teachings to his son Jilan Shah. It contains 44 chapters and is full of wit and wisdom, rich in anecdotes and illustration. The language and style of the work is simple, clear and forcible.
Siyasat Namah or Sairul Muluk: It is a well known work on morality and ethics. Its author Abu 'Ali al-Hasan bin Ishaque (who is generally known by his title Nizamul Mulk Tusi (1012-1092 A.D.) had been a Prime Minister for 30 years in the court of Alp Arsalan and Malik Shah. The book was written in 485 A.H. (1091 A.D.) in a simple and straightforward style.
Kimiya-i-Sa'adat: Another important prose work is the celebrated Kimiya-i-Sa'adat of Hujjatul Islam Abu hamid Md. Al-Ghazali written in the later part of the 5th/11th century. It deals with the moral doctrine of Islam. The style of the book is lucid, simple, charming and attractive.

    LITERARY WORKS:
Hadaiq-us-Sihr: It is another interesting prose work on rhetoric and poetry. The author Rashiduddin Watwat was the poet laureate of Sultan Atsiz Khawarazm, on whose request he wrote the book in very eloquent prose. It was completed in the middle of the 6th/12th century.
Chahar Maqala: It was written by Nizami 'Aruzi Samarqandi in 550/1155 A.D. It consists of four parts on the art of secretary ship, poetry, astronomy and medicine. The book is the most authentic and valuable for the biographical account of the great poets and scholar, some of whom were contemporaries of the author. The style of Chahar Maqala is very charming, lucid, elegant and powerful.
Maqamat-e-Hamidi: It is well known work in ornate Persian. It consists of 23 chapters on literary discourse, arguments, discussions and riddles. It was written by Qazi Hamiduddin Omar bin Mahmud of Balkh (d. 559/1164 A.D. ) in the middle of the 6th century A.H.
Kalila Wa Damna:  Originally a Sanskrit work on fables was translated into Pahlavi during the reign of Sasanian king Anushirwan. This Pahlavi translation was rended into Arabic by Abdullah ibn Al-Muqaffa. The present Kalila was Damna, translated from the version of Ibn-Muqaffa into Persian, by Abul Ma'ali Nasrullah in the middle of the 6th century A.H. The style of the book is extremely fluent and charming.
Marzaban Nama: It is also a book of fables like the kalila wa Damna. It was written by Saaduddin Waravini of Azerbaijan in the early part of the 7th century A.H.

Persian Prose under Ghaznavid

Persian Prose under Ghaznavid

    The foundation of Persian literature, which had been laid down under the Samanids, became sound and got enriched by the most eminent poets and scholars like Unsuri, Farrukhi, Asjadi, Firdausi, Minuchihri, Asadi, mystic poet Abu Sayeed Abil Khair, and Abu Ali Sina, popularly known as AviCenna in Europe, of the Ghaznavid period. Thus it can be safely said that Ghaznavid period was an age of the development and perfection for Persian literature.
    Though the span of Ghaznavid period was short, yet, so far as the importance and development of Persian poetry and number of Persian poets are concerned, this was one of the most illustrious and magnificent period of Persian prose literature.
    The most prominent emperor of the Ghaznavid dynasty, Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavi was not only a great warrior, but also a great patron of learning and scholasticism. He extended his whole hearted support to the cause and development of Persian language and literature. The eminent poets, scholars and educationist flocked to the court of Ghazna. The authors and writers, who flourished during this period, produced invaluable literary masterpieces which are considered the greatest Persian prose works till now.
    Beside the development of Persian poetry, Persian prose was also developed during the Ghaznavid period.
    Abul Fazl Baihaqi compiled a great historical work named Tarikh-e-Baihaqi. This is a great source which supplies information regarding the middle ages.
    Abu Rahim Al Bairuni also wrote two books in Persian prose. One is a history of Indian people, their customs and morality and another is on astronomy.
    Abu Ali Sina has a number of books in Persian prose to his credit. He wrote Danish Nama-e-Alai, Qaraja-i-Tabiat, Risalai-Nabz etc.
    From the above contents it can be remarked that Ghaznavid is no less significant so far as the development of Persian prose is concerned.

Historical and literary value of Shahnama

Historical and literary value of Shahnama:

The Shahnama of Firdausi is valuable source of information regarding the civilization, customs, traditions and manners of ancient Iran. It deals not only with war and peace but also gives an account of the social and cultural advancement of Iran through different periods.

The historical importance of Shahnama is evident from its verses in which the poet, depicting the illustrious past of his motherland, has appealed the Iranians for rebuilding and reviving the past glory of Iran.

The Iranian possesses a long record of historic past. They produced great warriors, generals and fighting. This ancient land of Asia is proud of fighting the Romans against the Arabs. Iran produced the legendry Rustam, Sohrab, Afrasiyab, Shapur the great, Sam, Naiman, Darius, Cyrus the great and Naushirvan the just, to name a few, but the Iranian prestige had suffered a setback by the Arab conquest of Persia, as the country was known earlier. Hence the national pride of the Iranians desperately wanted an outlet to manifest its zeal and fervour and this was provided by the immortal literary work, the Shahnama.

The book is based on the history of iran from the time of the first mystical king Kaymurus to the downfall of Yazdgard, the last Sassanian king. Accounts of the ministers, nobles and warriors and stories of wars and feast are also incorporated in the Shahnama.

The history treated in Shahnama is of three categories. The first part of the epic is mystical, the second being semi-historical and third part is pure history dealing with the Sassanian dynasty. Had Firdausi not composed the mystical and semi-historical parts, the present day would have remained ignorant of their great ancestors and their glorious deeds.

The historical account contained in Shahnama is quite authentic because Firdausi is careful enough to note the source of his information. There is no other historical work so authentic than the Shahnama on the ancient Iran. Inspite of its literary value, it is also a historical document which describes the religious, political and social condition of ancient Iran and gives an authentic account of the morals, manners, customs and traditions of the Iranians. It depicts the war and territorial expansion of Iran, the exploits of its heroes, the spiritual force of the mystics, the advent of Zaratushtra (Zoroaster) and his religion and various other important events of this great country.

By Shahnama, Firdausi has preserved for ever the national history of Iran and rescued it from oblivion and at the same time, he has immortalized himself through this great work, the product of his life-time labor and devotion as he himself says;

The language of Shahnama is as strong as steel, yet as smooth as running water. It is extremely simple and unadorned and from the beginning to its end the style of Shahnama is uniform and consistent.

The national pride of Firdausi did not allow him to use the works and expression of the foreign and hostile country of Arabia. Naturally, we find very little use of Arabic words and phrases in the Shahnama.

Since the Shahnama deals with the pre-historic era, Firdausi had often to reconstruct the events by his own imagination. Moreover, like a true epic poet, he has portrayed the different charactrs in their respective style and manner.

Though Shahnama is an epic poem, we find some verses of fine romantic nature, and nowhere Firdausi appears to trespass the limits of modesty and decorum. The love affairs between Bizan and Moniza, Sohrab and Mah Afrid, Zal and Rudaba are beautiful specimens of romantic Persian poetry.

Firdausi often uses beautiful and appropriate sceneries in Shahnama but never does he indulge in excessive use of rhetoric and flowery expressions. Even if he uses them occasionally, the subject matter never looses its fluency, charm and vividness.

Therefore, on account of the historical importance and literary value of Shahnama, Firdausi is still regarded as the master of epic poetry. Allama Ibn Asir has termed the Shahnama as 'the Quran of Ajam' and Sir Gore Ousely has called Firdausi 'the Homer of Persian'.

Fuwaid-ul-Fuad

Fuwaid-ul-Fuad

    Fawaid-ul-Fuad is a collection of sayings of the holy saints Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya recorded by Amir Hasan Sijzi in a day basis. The title means "things profitable to the heart'. This is a recording of the conversation author's spiritual guide, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya. They deal with various questions concerning religion and mysticism and are interwoven with maxims. It also contains anecdotes of earlier saints and spiritual guides which have been used by Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya to elaborate upon various religious and mystical points. The work became very popular of the time of its composition and it continued to hold the same prestigious position even later on Hasan's style is marked by simplicity and naturalness of language.
    Fuwaid-ul-fuwaid was written in the 18th century A.H. by Amir Hasan Ala Sijzi. He was a devoted disciple of the saint Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and used to pay his respect whomever he got time from his official duties at the army and visited Delhi with the saints permission, he recorded his sayings. The collection is not in a strict chronological order and is spread over a period of six years. Fuwaid-ul-Fuad holds a distinguished position among all the Malfuz literature compiled from time. It was held in such high esteem by Amir Khusraw that he wished to exchange all his works against Fuwaid-ul-Fuwad.
    The name Fuwaid-ul-Fuwad was adopted by the author as according to him " it rendered a healing touch to the broken hearts'. He composed the following Rubai depicting the date of the composition.
            
Translation of his verse:  It was on 20th Sha'aban in the year 720 that the sayings of the Khawaja compiled the saying which brings good tidings to the humanity.
    Fuwaid-ul-Fuwad is divided into four sections. Almost all the later Tazkira writers have based their accounts this book.
    Fuwaid presents a mirror which reflects social and cultural picture of the time beside unfolding mystical truth and Sufi doctrine. It also reflects the great personalities of the saints, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya his relationship with the disciple named the life at the Khawanqah. It also provides a glimpse of the life of the nobles and Amirs, saints and their devotes alike.
    It is written in very simple and elegant style. The greatest quality of the work is that it has been appreciated by all historians and Tazkira writers and has been considered authentic by all.

Fall of the Abbasid Dynasty

Fall of the Abbasid Dynasty

Throughout the period of the crusades the Muslim generals and soldiers showed the entremets sympathy and kindness, patience and preservence, forgiveness and gentleness, and above all, the chivalrous spirit. During this time the Khalifa of Baghdad were involved in their internal struggle. When their country was threatened by the Crusaders, they paid no head to it. They were passing their days idly and extravagantly. This mode of life continued till the capture of Baghdad by Halaqu, a grand son of Changiz Khan, who devastated the city and killed A-MustaSim, the last kalifa of the Abbasid dynasty in 1258 A.D. Thus the long reign of the Abbasid dynasty came to an end.
    CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE Abbasid dynasty
    To trace the causes of the downfall of the Abbasid dynasty is to recount the doing of the Khalifas. Most of the later Khalifas of this dynasty led pompous and luxurious life and cared little for the state. Instead of making any attempt to uplift the condition of the subjects and to improve the government, they devoted their valuable time to wine, women and music. Moreover, they lost the vigor and energy to hold the scepter as their blood became diluted with that of the conquered.
    The supremacy of the Turks in the later period was one of the causes of the fall of the empire. After the death of Mutawakkil the power of the Turks began to increase rapidly and the successors of Mutawakkil could not resist it. The Arabs and the Persians became disgusted with their high handed policy. The result of this alienation was the established of a number4 of independent states which proved fatal to the empire.
    The negligence of the military department under the later Khalifa greatly contributed to the downfall of the Abbasids. The success and stability of the empire depends on military strength.
    The relation between the province and the central government was not cordial. In many cases the provincial governors endeavored to defy the authority of the centre and declared their independence.
    The struggle between the Arabs and non-Arabs between the Muslims and non-Muslim was going on in full swing during this period. The Iranians who were favored by the Abbasids despaired the Arabs and the Arabs despaired the Iranians and other. The conquences was the division of the Muslims into several sects and thus the disintegration of the empire set in slowly but steadily.
    Among several factors that led to the downfall of the empire, the economic factors were no less important. The imposition of taxes for the interest of the ruling class discouraged farming and industry and the constant bloody stripers left many a piece of cultivated land desolate and forlorn. The flood in Mesopotamia made the people hopeless and homeless. Besides this famine and epidemic decimated the population in many provinces.
    To these causes of decay must be added the invasion of Halaqu, a grandson of Changez Khan who divested the city of Baghdad on such a scale that for three years the streets ran with blood and the water of the Tigris was dyed red for miles along the course. He killed the last Khalifa of this dynasty and massacred his family so much so that for the first time in its history the Muslim world was left without a Khalifa whose name could be cited in the Friday prayers.

Conquest of Persia by the Arabs, short

Conquest of Persia by the Arabs

    After the battle of Jalula, caliph Umar was not inclined to under take any further campaigns against the Persians. Things however developed which brought the Muslims to Persia. At the time of the battle of Jalula some Muslim forces from Basra undertook military operations in the neighboring Persian province of Khuzestan to cut of the supply line of the Persians that served the Persian army at Jalula. After the battle of Jalula the Muslim forces already in Khuzestan advanced further inland in Persia to fall to the Muslim. Manadhar and Sus were the next to fall. After Sus there was conformation at Ramharz where the Persians were defeated and the city fell to the Muslims. After Ramharz the cities of Shuster and Jandi Saur fell to the Muslim and that completed the conquest of the province of Khuzestan.
    The fall of Khuzestan alarmed the Persian and they mobilized all the resources at their disposal in another bid to stem the tide of the advancing Muslims. A large Persian army was accordingly assembled at Nihawand to give battle to the Muslims. The battle of Nihawand fought in 641 C.E, was a bloody battle when in spite of the Stiff resistance put in by the Persian the Muslim won the battle. The battle of Nihawand scaled the fate of Persia. As the Muslim penetrated further into the heart of Persia. There was another confrontation at Ray. The Persia suffered a heavy defeated. After the battle of Ray there was complete paralysis in the government of Persia Yazdjurd the emperor of Persia was forced to run from pillar to post and post to pillar. After the fall of Ray the Muslim forces spread in all directions in Persia. Azerbaijan and Tabarisatn fell in 634 C.E campaigns were there after undertaken in Armenia which was occupied by the Muslim other Muslim columns occupied Fars and Seestan. Eastward the Muslims advanced to what in now Baluchistan and occupied Mehran. By 659 C.E the Muslims reached Khurasan and occupied Mery. The Persian emperor Yazdjurd fled beyong the Onus and asked for help from Khaqan of Turkistan with the help thus obtained Yazdjurd made another attempts to recover his lost dominions. The attempt failed to Sassanid king was murdered by a miller in 651 C.E near the river Murgab with the death of Yazdjur all Muslims became the masters of the whole of Persia.

CHAHAR MAQALA by Nizami Uruzi

CHAHAR MAQALA

    The original name of the book written by Nizami Uruzi as recorded by the different biographers, is Majmaun Nawadir but it is commonly known as Chahar Maqala. It consists of an introduction and for discourses. (1) Art of Secretary ship (Administration) (2) Art of Poetry. (3) Art of Astrology and (4) Medicine. Each topic has been illustrated with numerous anecdotes.
The chahar Maqala is one of the most authentic, valuable and oldest source of information on the reigns of the various princes of different dynasties and on biographies of eminent writers and poets of different ages. It throws a flood of light on the happenings and occurrence of the period it deals with. The accounts furnished by Niami are authentic and reliable because he took extensive four of the country, visited places, studied facts and collected information from the persons who were eye witness to these events.
    The historical vale of the Chahar Maqala lies in the fact that it has preserved the names of such poets, scholars and books which have now gone into oblivision. The second discourse dealing both poetry and art of versification is a mine of information regarding the poets of the Samanid, Ghaznavid and Ghurid dynasties. The life and achievements of Rudaki, Farrukhi, Arzaqi and Saad Salman has been dealt with great sagacity and cautiously. Besides we get much information about the Sultans, nobles, ministers and contemporary men of affluence and their love for art and culture. Thus from critical stand poit of view, the book is very informative and comprehensive. Moreover, the author has very vividly discussed many important and useful problems in connection both secretary ship and astrology. There is also good and clear information about the internal and external senses of man. The anecdotes of Abu Ali Sina, Al-Beruni and Imam Zakaria Razi draw our special attention because these are found no where.
    So far the literary value of the book is concerned, there is no doubt that this masterpiece work stands unparalleled. It is a fine specimen of classical prose work produced in the 10th century A.D. Md. Taqi Bahar, the modern poet and critics is of the opinion that 'Chahar Maqala' is one of the four masterpieces of early Persian prose. The author, a learned man of his time, has shown his literary talent and pen man ship in the approach of delicate matters. The work is singular and unique and a fine specimen of easy fluency, exact conciseness and conversational tone. A reader does not come across with any exaggerated sentence and all the other rhetorical devices prevalent in those days.
So far the language and style of the book is concerned it is it is very charming, lucid, elegant and powerful. Its well-chosen words and high dictions show that the author had a wonderful command of language.
    Prof. E.G. Browne, the great critic and orient list writes that Chahar Maqala is 'one of the most interesting and remarkable prose work in Persian". In short this masterpiece production both critically and historically stands unchangeable and surpasses all other such compositions in the realm of Persian literature.

Career and achievement of Ghazan Khan

Career and achievement of Ghazan Khan

    Ghazan Khan the eldest son of Argun Khan ascended the throne in 1295 his accession mark the opinion of a period of progress and prosperity. Immediately after his accession Ghazan in breast Islam and took the name Mahmud and from this time on world till the fall of the dynasty Islam was the religion of the state.
    The earliest part of his short reign nine years was field with rebellion and disturbance many chief and official were put to death during his reign Ghazan took advent age from the weakness of Mamluk empire which was suffering from internal trouble and invaded series and crossed the Euphrates with 19th thousand strong army.
    The deceive battle was fought at Hims Ghazan defeated the Mamluks and captured Damascus. Islam had brought a great change in the behavior of Mongol which is evidence in Ghazan treatment of Damascus.
    He received the submission of the city and issued a proclamation that no harm would be done to anyone. In 1301 Ghazan made second incursion into serial but was failed with heavy loss due to bad weather two years later he against crossed the Euphrates but in this occasion got minor success. He had friendly relation with Byzantium.
    In spite of all these Ghazan is more famous for his reform he introduced a great financial reform before this condition of revenue was much bad he introduced a new system of taxation, each village paid taxes in two statements. Another major was that all government official and others not only use the government transport but also everything without payment he removed the title of Khakan from the coin age. He improved the administration of justice and setup a standard of way and majors. Thousands of guards were postage on roads for the safety of travelers.
    Ghazan decorated his capital Tabrez with buildings, such as Sultan Sanjars tone at Marv. He made many mosque, colleges, hospitals, library and observatory and acquainted learned men with liberal salaries to teach and work in these foundation.
    Thus in short Ghazan achieve great fame in administration Ghazan than ugly and short structure but he was noted as official administration in brave warrior and fought numbers of word with Mamluk of Egypt due to his influence Mongols were began to embrace Islam. It is to be regarded that a man of such administrative gibbous was shortly after words successed by Pupet Khan. Under whom Persia relaxed into anarchy.

A Short Biography of Abul Fazl Allami

Abul Fazl Allami

    Abul Fazl Allami was the second son of Shaikh Mubarak. He was born in 1551 A.D. and was first introduced at the court of emperor Akbar by his brother Faizi in 1575 A.D. By his rare wisdom and gifts of intellect he rose to the high ranked of minister of the state. He was a rare combination of a profound scholar, a great munshi, a distinguished historian, a brilliant administrator and a splendid statesman.

    Abul fazl was a prolific prose writer and unparalleled in writing of Insha. His greatness as a prose writer has been acknowledged by most of his contemporary poets and scholars as well as letter intellectuals and scholars literature. Abul Fazl was a genius and original classical prose writer. In the art of classical prose writing he led a new foundation and raised the dignity of ornate prose writing to its climax. Some scholars of Persian literature has compared Allami's Persian prose with the Persian poetry of Amir Khusraw on account of the blend of scholarship and excellence traced in their writings.
    Abul Fazl was a master of particular style in classical prose writing and few scholars of high reputes could reach the rank of Abul Fazl in composing such a lucid and verbose sentences. His art of Insha as well ornate prose writing was so impressive that most of the prose writers tried to emulate his style in their writing.
    Apart from being a prolific classical writer he is regarded as one of the most distinguished historians of the court of Akbar and his 'Akbar Nama' and 'Ain-e-Akbari' bear testimony for his profound scholarship and command over Persian prose.
    Considering the above facts, Abul fazl Allami can certainly be declared as one of the greatest classical prose writers of medieval India.

A Short Biography of Amir Khusraw

Amir Khusraw

    Khawaja Yaminuddin Mohammad Abul Hasan Amir Khusraw, the great Persian poet, scholar and politician of medieval India. Undoubtedly a man of rare qualities and exceptional powers. He was an erudite scholar not only of Persian and Arabic, but also of Sanskrit, Hindawi, Awadhi and Turkish.
    He was born in 1253 A.D at Patiala in the district of Etah in Uttar Pardesh. His father, Amir Saifuddin Mahmud migrated to India from the city of Khus in central Asia, during the reign of Sultan Shamsuddin Altutmish. He lost his beloved father at an early age. The material grand father, 'Imadul Mulk, the Defense Minister under Sultan Balban, then took care of him and paid special attention towards his education and training. He was brought up in the traditional style of Muslim education and at an early age he obtained high education efficiency in the customary arts and literature and other branches of learning such as Fiqh, Astronomy, Philosophy, Grammar, Logic, History, Mysticism and Religion. He was also well versed in the art of music. After the death of Imadul
    Mulk in 1272 A.D. Khusraw became a disciple of the Sufi saint Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya to whom he showed his deep love and devotion. He was a born poet and began to compose verses from his very boyhood.
    Khusraw witnessed the reign of some eleven kings from Ghiyasuddin Balban to Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and continued to win the favour of each ruler. They took pride in him for his scholarly achienements, intelligence and wisdom. And above all for his pity and purity of heart.
    Amir Khusraw was a versatile genius, whose colourful personality has contributed a lot to the development of indo-Persian literature. He was a great poet, scholar, a historian, a linguist, an artist, a man of wit and humour and a great musician. According to Amir Khurd, the author of 'Siyarul Aulia' his works covers about ninety nine volumes. According to E.G. Browne he was a "highly esteemed" and "enormously productive pod. He has to his credit a large number of Ghazals, Rubais, Masnavis, Qasidas, Mukaris, Dohas, Riddles and several other versatile of compositions and in each of these forms of poetry he attained singular success. He was gifted with an unique genius to evolve his own style and to preserve his distinct identity, yet he drew inspiration from great classical masters of Persian poetry like Saadi, Anwari, Khaqani, Sanai and Nizami of Ganja.
WORKS: A short description of his works written in different period of his life is given below:
    Khusraw compiled five Diwan namely (i) Tahfatus Sighr (ii) Wasatul hayat, containing many qasida in praise of khan-e-Shaheed (iii) Ghurratul-Kamil, comtaing qasidas jalaluddin Firoz shah and Nizamuddin Aulia (iv) Baqiyya-Naqiyya and (v) Nihayatul Kamal.
    Besides he composed 'Panj Ganj' after the model of the; Khamsa' of Nizami. Khusraw is the first Persian poet to set himself to this task after 'Nizami'. Their titles are, 'Matla-ul-Anwar', 'Shirin-wa-Khusraw','Aina-e-Sikandari','Hasht Behist' and 'Majnun-wa-Laila.
    Dr. M.Waheed Mirza, an authority on Khusraw states. "There have been in the history of the world but few instances of a scholar or a poet acquiring a popularity and a fame like those of Khusraw _Centuries have elapsed since the 'Parrot of India' sang his last song and the voice that had charmed princes and peasants was husted for ever, yet the memory of his name is as fresh today as ever."

Omar Khayyám

Omar Khayyám عمر خیام (born 18 May 1048 AD, Neyshapur, Iran–1131 AD, Neyshapur, Iran), was a Persian polymath, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer, physician, Sufi and poet. He wrote treatises on mechanics, geography, and music.

Khayyám's full name was Ghiyath al-Din Abu'l-Fath Umar ibn Ibrahim Al-Nishapuri al-Khayyami (Persian: غیاث الدین ابو الفتح عمر بن ابراهیم خیام نیشاپوری). He was born in Nishapur, Iran, then a Seljuk capital in Khorasan (present Northeast Iran), which rivaled Cairo or Baghdad in cultural prominence in that era. He is thought to have been born into a family of tent makers (al-khayyami, lit. in Arabic "tent-maker"), which he would make this into a play on words later in life:

Khayyám, who stitched the tents of science,
Has fallen in grief's furnace and been suddenly burned,
The shears of Fate have cut the tent ropes of his life,
And the broker of Hope has sold him for nothing!

– Omar Khayyám

He spent part of his childhood in the town of Balkh (present northern Afghanistan), studying under the well-known scholar Sheikh Muhammad Mansuri. He later studied under Imam Mowaffaq Nishapuri, who was considered one of the greatest teachers of the Khorassan region.

At a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there, afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. Recognized as the author of the most important treatise on algebra before modern times as reflected in his Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra giving a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform.

His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, have not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Zamakhshari referred to him as “the philosopher of the world”. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Ibn Sina in Nishapur where Khayyám was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year.

Outside Iran and Persian speaking countries, Khayyám has had an impact on literature and societies through the translation of his works and popularization by other scholars. The greatest such impact was in English-speaking countries; the English scholar Thomas Hyde (1636–1703) was the first non-Persian to study him. The most influential of all was Edward FitzGerald (1809–83), who made Khayyám the most famous poet of the East in the West through his celebrated translation and adaptations of Khayyám's rather small number of quatrains (rubaiyaas) in Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám.

Encyclopædia Iranica | Articles

Encyclopædia Iranica | Articles

ḤEJĀZI, MOḤAMMAD

ḤEJĀZI, MOḤAMMAD MOṬIʿ-AL-DAWLA

novelist, short-story writer, playwright, essayist, translator, government official, and member of the Senate (1901-1974)—one of a small group of Persians with Western-style education in the early twentieth century who displayed a sense of responsibility and mission to change and modernize Persia and to introduce Western ideas and modes of behavior.

ḤEJĀZI, MOḤAMMAD MOṬIʿ-AL-DAWLA, novelist, short-story writer, playwright, essayist, translator, a government official and a member of the Senate (b. Tehran 24 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 1318/14 April 1901; d. Tehran 10 Bahman 1352 Š./30 January 1974; Figure 1). Son of a high ranking Qajar official, Sayyed Naṣr-Allāh Mostawfi, Wazir Lašgar, he received his elementary and high school education in Tehran at St. Louis, the French Catholic missionary school for boys. In 1919 he was employed by the ministry of post, telegraph, and telephone and in 1921 he was sent by the same ministry to continue his education in France. There he completed a degree in telecommunications (telegrāf-e bisim) and electrical engineering, as well as political science (Ārianpur, p. 244).

ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL CAREER

On his return to Persia in 1929, Ḥejāzi was appointed director of the personnel department of the ministry, and in 1932 became the founding editor of Majalla-ye post o telegrāf o telefon (Ārianpur, p. 244; Ṣadr Hāšemi, Jarāʾed o majallāt I, no. 343, pp. 69-71). In late 1934, he was transferred to the ministry of finance and appointed chef de cabinet to the minister of finance, ʿAli Akbar Dāvar (q.v.). When Sāzmān-e parvareš-e afkār (The Bureau for Public Enlightenment), a publicity organization for the regime, was established in 1938, Ḥejāzi was appointed chairman of its press committee. In order to publicize the progress made during the reign of Reza Shah, the committee established a periodical called Irān-e emruz (Iran Today; Ṣadr Hāšemi, Jarāʾed o majallāt I, no. 244, pp. 325-30), headed by Ḥejāzi, subscription to which was mandatory for senior government officials. This government journal, appearing at first at irregular intervals and later monthly, continued publication until 1941, when the Allies invaded Persia. In the summer of 1943 Ḥejāzi was appointed director of the Office of Publications and Publicity (Entešārāt o tabliḡāt) and later the head of the bureau overseeing Persian students in Europe. In the cabinet of prime minister Ḥosayn ʿAlāʾ, in the spring of 1951, Ḥejāzi served as deputy prime minister, but he was removed from this post early in the government of prime minister Moḥammad Moṣaddeq. Following the 1953 coup d’etat (q.v.), Ḥejāzi was invited at the suggestion of ʿAlāʾ, the court minister at the time, to weekly audiences with the shah to discuss cultural, social, and political issues. It was in these meetings that the idea for a series of books on “self-made men” took shape; the shah himself wrote a biography of his father, Reza Shah, and Ḥe-jāzi a biography of the famous painter Kamāl-al-Molk (Tehran, 1956). At the latter part of his political career, Ḥejāzi served for two terms, from 1954 until 1963, as an appointed senator and two more terms as an elected senator from Tehran until 1971, two years before his death. His long career as a government official, and particularly his earlier position as an official propagandist for the Pahlavi regime, had an adverse effect on his literary reputation and provided ample ammunition for the dissident intellectuals and the leftist engagé writers of his time, as well as sufficient material for parodies of his sentiments and pastiches of his style in satirical journals like Bābā šamal (Ṣadr Hāšemi, Jarāʾed o majallāt I, pp. 329-30, Eng. tr. in Kamshad, p. 77).

WORKS

Early novels. Ḥejāzi’s fame rests mainly on his early novels, Homā (Tehran, 1928), Paričehr (Tehran, 1929), and Zibā (Tehran, 1930), all named after their eponymous heroines. He chose his characters from his own milieu, that of the urban upper middle class. Nevertheless, his depiction of these characters varies in its degree of realism and credibility. Homā, for example, is the portrait of a young educated girl who has fallen in love with a young man; but, realizing that her guardian, whom she greatly admires, has fallen in love with her, she decides to devote her life to him. Ultimately, the story becomes a tale of good versus evil. The young man, assisted by a rogue clergyman, engages in various vicious intrigues to avenge himself against the guardian. Homā is an idealistic representation of a modern Persian woman, or at least what Ḥejāzi and many of his readers would have liked to believe and obviously, as his later works indicate, perhaps a model to be emulated by other women. Paričehr, the eponymous heroine of Ḥejāzi’s second and less successful novel, is the exact opposite of Homā. In Paričehr, the authorial tone is more didactic, alerting his readers to the moral decadence and corruption inherent in modern society, a warning particularly aimed at young women, then entering the arena of social life in increasing numbers. Critics generally regard Zibā, Ḥejāzi’s third novel, as his best work, mainly because it contains, along with his usual didactic moral messages of virtue and chastity, a most detailed and frank fictional record of governmental, political, and bureaucratic corruption, a subject matter which has been of great interest to the mainstream, socially conscious writers in Persia for more than a century (Ḵānlari, p. 153; Ārianpur, pp. 246-48; Kamshad, pp. 75-77).

Zibā. This novel chronicles the chaotic period of the 1910s in the aftermath of the Constitutional Period and World War I, and provides a panoramic view of a decadent society. The cast of characters in this world of corruption and intrigue comes to life through Hejazi’s mastery of satire and his eye for the telling detail. The rogues’ gallery includes a scheming courtesan capable of fixing appointments in the highest echelons of government, tough streetwise bullies boasting of their love of the country and exploiting the lack of firm government to their own ends and not stopping short of murder and assassination, as well as ordinary, honest, and long-suffering civil servants caught in a world where the only way to survive is through cynical manipulation of others. Hejāzi’s own intimate knowledge of politics at the top was doubtless an important factor in the success of the story as a convincing critical sketch of a society. However, the very fact that the writer stopped short of hectoring his readers and implanting an anti-establishment political manifesto along the way, did not go well with the more left-leaning intellectuals who became increasingly dismissive of him as a committed writer and pointed to the honors heaped on him by a government not dissimilar to the one Hejazi had portrayed as far as questions of personal morality or social justice were concerned.

The plot of the novel is a complex one with many twists and turns. The main narrative, however, focuses on Ḥosayn, a young seminary student, who has come to Tehran for his education. As a child he had witnessed his father, whom he thought to be the most powerful man in the world, humbly kiss the hand of the village cleric. The impact of this incident drives him to study religious jurisprudence and become a learned cleric. Initially, while completing his early studies with the village cleric, then in a nearby city in his province and later in the capital, his aim is to reach the highest levels of piety by abandoning worldly concerns. But after meeting Zibā, the best-known courtesan in town, the course of his life changes. Because of her intimacy with high-ranking government officials, Zibā has become very influential, and can indirectly hire or fire people at will. Ḥosayn undergoes a spiritual conversion through Zibā and forsakes his ideals of asceticism and piety for worldly ambitions and a ruthless drive for power; he changes his clerical robes for European suits and relishes all the newly found luxuries. From then on, for the sake of personal advancement and success, he does not hesitate to commit any sort of deception and becomes involved in every kind of corruption, including the exploiting of his mistress, Zibā, to gain money, power, and a place in high society. Eventually, he succeeds in the fulfillment of his dreams by marrying the daughter of the chief of the cabinet, who provides him with higher position, power, and wealth; but once the minister is changed, Ḥosayn is accused of theft and is dismissed. By and large, Zibā is a novel of disillusionment. While Ḥosayn finally realizes that absolute power is only a mirage and that his efforts to gain it have only resulted in the destruction of himself and his family, Zibā’s dream to have a family some day is also no more than an illusion in a society that uses and shuns her.

Other works. Ḥejāzi published a number of other works, including two novels in the early 1950s. His earlier collections of short stories, Āyena (Mirror, Tehran, 1937) and Andiša (Thought, Tehran, 1940) as well as those published after World War II, Sāḡar (Goblet, 2nd ed., Tehran, 1951), Āhang, (Melody, Tehran, 1951), and Nasim (Breeze, Tehran, 1961). While some of them (e.g., “Šāʿer-e Beljiki,” “Fāteḥ-e Rumi,” “Bābā kuhi,” all in the collection Āyena) are well-wrought short stories, others are constructed more as anecdotal vehicles for a display of euphuistic prose and moralization, more akin to the style of the maqāmāt genre of classical literature than to modern short stories (Ḵānlari, p. 163). His novels during this period include Parvāna (Tehran, 1953) and Serešk (Tears, Tehran, 1954). The first is a sentimental tale of unrequited love in which the female protagonist ends up committing suicide, thereby bringing about the “spiritual awakening” of the poet with whom she had fallen in love. In contrast to the previous novels, in Serešk Ḥejāzi chooses a non-Persian setting and non-Persian characters, but his theme, subject matter, and style remain essentially the same. Set in America, which is described by the author as an idyllic land with enterprising people, it is a story about a young man, William, who grows up in an affluent family. Because of his physical beauty, he develops a sense of superiority over others and believes that few women would be worthy to be his wife. After rejecting a series of women, each of whom he thinks lacks one of the collection of attributes he seeks in a wife, he finally marries a beautiful, educated girl. Her only shortcoming is that she possesses an extremely jealous nature and forbids William to even look at other women. Her jealousy eventually results in her blinding William in his sleep, for which she is put on trial. William refuses to blame his wife and the couple decide to live the remainder of their lives together quietly.

In addition to prose fiction, Ḥejāzi also wrote several plays, including “Maḥmud Āqā rā wakil konid” (Pick Maḥmud Āqā for Parliament, Tehran 1951), “ʿArus-e farangi” (European bride), “Jang” (War), and “Mosāferat-e Qom” (A trip to Qom). “Maḥmud Āqā” is generally regarded as his best play and has been compared to Ṣādeq Hedyat’s story, Hāji Āqā (q.v.), as they both deal with corrupt practices and influence-peddling in the Persian elections.

A study of Ḥejāzi’s life as a writer, politician, and bureaucrat reveals him as a member of a small group of Persians with Western-style education in the early twentieth century who display a sense of responsibility and mission to change and modernize Persia and to introduce Western ideas and modes of behavior to the young people of their country. In keeping with this sense of mission and responsibility are, for instance, Ḥejāzi’s efforts in translating into Persian works such as Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams (tr. as Roʾyā, Tehran, 1953), and the short treatise written while a student, Telegrāf-e bisim (Wireless Telegraph, Berlin, 1923). In fact, Ḥejāzi continued his efforts in the latter decades of his life through his involvement in writing several high-school textbooks.

However, his fiction, particularly in the post-Moṣaddeq period and during the ensuing political repression and martial law, rather than serving his purpose of moralization and giving direction to the development of minds, as he would have liked to believe, provided escape from the realities of life for his Persian audience. His writings enjoyed a wide readership and went through many reprints, but his meandering between naturalism and romanticism and the contradictions inherent in his life and work had been remarked upon earlier in his literary career, when he had been criticized for lacking a coherent world-view (jahān-bini; see Sayyāḥ, p. 182), and these same criticisms were repeated in increasingly harsher tones by later and more pugnacious critics (Barāheni, p. 351).

Bibliography: Ḥasan ʿĀbedini, Ṣad sāl dāstān-nevisi I, Tehran, 1982, pp. 38-40. M. Āryanpur, “Retrospect and Progress: A Short View of Modern Persian Literature,” in Critical Perspectives on Modern Persian Literature, ed. T. Ricks, Washington, D.C., 1984, pp. 459-60. Yaḥyā Ārianpur, Az Nimā tā ruzegār-e mā: Tāriḵ-e adab-e fārsi-e moʿāṣer III, Tehran, 1974, pp. 243-57. R. Barāheni, Qeṣṣanevisi, Tehran, 1969. M. Ghanoonparvar, In a Persian Mirror: Images of the West and Westerners in Iranian Fiction, Austin, 1993, pp. 50-52. Hasan Kamshad, Modern Persian Prose Literature, Cambridge, 1966, pp. 73-84. Parviz Nātel Ḵānlari, “Naṯr-e fārsi dar dawra-ye aḵir,” in Naḵostin kongera-ye nevisandaḡan-e Īrān, 1946, repr. Tehran, 1978, pp. 128-75. D. S. Komissarov, as cited in Kamshad, p. 215. Meṣbāhipur-Īrāniān, Vāqeʿiyat-e ejtemāʿi wa jahān-e dāstān, Tehran, 1979, pp. 60-90. Šāhroḵ Meskub, Dāstān-e adabiyāt wa sargoḏašt-e ejtemāʿ, 1300-1315, Tehran, 1994. Jamāl Mirṣādeqi, Adabiyāt-e dāstāni, 1986, pp. 458, 697. M. Sepānlu, Nevisandegān-e pišrov-e Irān, Tehran, 1983, pp. 146-48. Mošār, Moʾallefin V, pp. 381-86. Fāṭema Sayyāḥ, “Comments on P. N. Ḵānlari in Naḵ

Mashir ahmed